Chapter 5 Geomorphic Processes

Introduction

Having explored Earth's formation, its internal layers, the movement of its crustal plates, and phenomena like earthquakes and volcanism, we now focus on the planet's outer shell—the surface where life exists. A fundamental observation is that the Earth's surface is strikingly uneven, featuring mountains, plains, valleys, and plateaus.

The unevenness of the Earth's surface is primarily a result of the constant interplay between forces originating from within the Earth and those acting upon its surface. The Earth's crust is dynamic, undergoing both vertical uplift/subsidence and horizontal movement (plate tectonics).

Forces acting from **within the Earth's interior** are termed **endogenic forces**. These forces are responsible for building up or elevating parts of the crust, creating relief variations.

Forces acting on the **Earth's surface**, driven primarily by solar energy, are called **exogenic forces**. These forces work to wear down or degrade elevated areas (degradation) and fill in depressions or basins (aggradation). The overall process of reducing relief through erosion is known as **gradation**.

The Earth's surface remains uneven because the continuous land-building activity of endogenic forces counters the land-wearing actions of exogenic processes. Variations persist as long as this opposition between internal construction and external destruction continues. In essence, endogenic forces build relief, while exogenic forces modify and reduce it.

The Earth's surface is a critical environment for human sustenance and is used intensively. Understanding the natural processes shaping it is vital for sustainable use, minimizing negative impacts, and preserving its potential for future generations. While most organisms contribute to maintaining the environment, human activities, particularly resource overuse, have caused significant damage, diminishing the Earth's potential at an alarming rate.

By understanding the processes that shape the Earth's surface into diverse forms and the materials they act upon, we can take precautions to mitigate the harmful effects of human activity and protect the environment.

Geomorphic Processes

The term **geomorphic processes** refers to the actions of both endogenic and exogenic forces. These forces apply physical stress and chemical reactions to Earth materials, causing alterations in the configuration of the Earth's surface.

Endogenic geomorphic processes include **Diastrophism** and **Volcanism**. These were briefly introduced in prior discussions.

Exogenic geomorphic processes encompass **Weathering, Mass Wasting, Erosion, and Deposition**. These processes are the focus of this chapter.

Any natural element (like water, ice, wind) capable of picking up and moving Earth materials is called a **geomorphic agent**. When these elements are mobilized, often by gradients (slopes), they remove material (erosion), transport it, and deposit it elsewhere. For exogenic processes, the agent and the process are closely linked; often, the term "geomorphic agent" refers to the mobile medium (like running water, glaciers, wind, waves, currents), and "geomorphic process" refers to the actions (erosion, transport, deposition) performed by that agent. The distinction lies in whether we are referring to the force/action or the medium carrying out the action.

Gravity plays a fundamental role in geomorphic processes. Besides being the force that causes downslope movement of all matter, it also creates stress on Earth materials. Indirectly, gravity drives waves and tides and influences wind patterns. Without gravity and gradients (slopes), there would be no movement of material, rendering erosion, transportation, and deposition impossible. Gravity is the force that anchors us to the Earth's surface and initiates the movement of surface material. All movements, both within the Earth and on its surface, occur down a gradient – from higher to lower elevation, or from high to low pressure areas.

Endogenic Processes

The energy powering **endogenic geomorphic processes** originates from within the Earth. This internal energy is primarily derived from:

• **Radioactive decay** of elements within the Earth.
• Residual **primordial heat** left over from the Earth's formation.
• Friction caused by the Earth's **rotation** and **tidal forces**.

Variations in geothermal gradients (how temperature changes with depth) and heat flow within the Earth drive **Diastrophism** and **Volcanism** in the lithosphere. Because the internal heat flow, crustal thickness, and strength vary geographically, the effects of endogenic forces are not uniform across the globe, resulting in the initial unevenness of the Earth's tectonic surface.

Diastrophism

Diastrophism is a collective term for all processes that deform the Earth's crust, causing it to move, uplift, or build structures. Key diastrophic processes include:

• **Orogenic Processes (Orogeny):** These are mountain-building processes involving intense folding and faulting along narrow, elongated belts of the crust (e.g., the formation of the Himalayas).
• **Epeirogenic Processes (Epeirogeny):** These involve the uplift or warping of large, broad areas of the crust, creating continents or plateaus rather than folded mountains. Epeirogeny typically involves gentle warping or broad uplift/subsidence.
• **Earthquakes:** Sudden, localized movements of the crust resulting from the release of accumulated stress along faults.
• **Plate Tectonics:** The large-scale horizontal movement and interaction of rigid lithospheric plates, which underlies most major diastrophic events.

While orogeny causes severe folding, epeirogeny results in simpler deformation like broad uplift. Orogeny specifically relates to mountain building, whereas epeirogeny is associated with continental scale uplift or subsidence. Diastrophic processes like orogeny, epeirogeny, earthquakes, and plate tectonics frequently lead to the faulting and fracturing of the Earth's crust. These processes induce changes in Pressure, Volume, and Temperature (**PVT changes**), which in turn can cause existing rocks to transform into metamorphic rocks (**metamorphism**).

Volcanism

Volcanism refers to all processes associated with the movement of molten rock (magma) from the Earth's interior towards or onto the surface. It also includes the formation of various igneous features, both intrusive (magma solidifying beneath the surface) and extrusive (lava solidifying on the surface).

Specific aspects of volcanism, such as the types of volcanoes and the nature of erupted material, have been discussed in detail in previous chapters (specifically, Chapter 3 regarding Earth's interior and volcanic forms).

Exogenic Processes

The energy that drives **exogenic geomorphic processes** primarily comes from the atmosphere, which is ultimately powered by energy from the **sun**. These processes are also influenced by gradients (slopes) created by endogenic tectonic forces.

Gravity is crucial here; it acts on all sloping surfaces, causing Earth materials to move downslope. Forces acting on materials can be quantified as **stress** (force per unit area). Shear stress, acting parallel to a surface, is particularly important as it can cause rocks and materials to break or slip. Shear stresses lead to angular displacement or slippage within the material.

Beyond gravity, Earth materials experience **molecular stresses** due to factors like changes in temperature, the growth of crystals (e.g., ice or salt), and melting. Chemical processes can weaken bonds between mineral grains or dissolve cementing materials. The fundamental cause for weathering, mass movements, and erosion is the development of these stresses within Earth materials.

The intensity and effectiveness of exogenic processes are largely controlled by **climatic factors**, especially **temperature** and **precipitation**. These climatic elements determine the type and rate of weathering, the availability of water or ice for erosion, and the energy of agents like wind.

All exogenic geomorphic processes that cause the wearing away of the Earth's surface are collectively termed **denudation**. Denudation includes **Weathering, Mass Wasting (or Mass Movements), Erosion, and Transportation**. The subsequent process, **Deposition**, is often linked as the final stage where transported material settles.

The flow chart below illustrates the denudation processes and their main driving forces:

Exogenic geomorphic processes vary across the Earth's surface primarily due to variations in climate. Different climatic regions, shaped by latitude, seasons, and land-water distribution, influence the dominant processes. Vegetation cover, which depends heavily on temperature and precipitation, also indirectly affects exogenic processes, for example, by protecting the ground from erosion.

Even within a single climatic region, variations in altitude, slope aspect (direction a slope faces), amount of solar radiation received, wind speed and direction, precipitation type and intensity, temperature range (daily and seasonal), and the frequency of freezing and thawing can cause differences in how these processes operate.

Ultimately, the sole external driving force behind most exogenic processes is the energy from the sun, which powers atmospheric and hydrological cycles, creating agents like wind, rain, and ice.

Besides climate, the **type and structure of rocks** significantly influence the intensity of exogenic processes. Rock structure includes features like folds, faults, layers (bedding planes), joints, hardness/softness of minerals, chemical susceptibility, and permeability. Different rocks offer varying resistance to different processes. A rock resistant to one type of weathering might be easily eroded by another process or react differently under different climatic conditions. While the effects of exogenic processes can be slow and subtle over short periods, their continuous action causes significant changes to rocks and landscapes over long time spans due to repeated stress (fatigue).

In summary, the variations on the Earth's surface, initially created by internal tectonic forces, are maintained and modified by the continuous actions of exogenic processes. The resulting landscape is a product of the interaction between the type and structure of Earth materials, the specific geomorphic processes operating, and the rate at which they occur.

Weathering

Weathering is defined as the disintegration and decomposition of rocks and minerals at or near the Earth's surface. It is caused by the action of elements of weather and climate, such as temperature, precipitation, wind, and atmospheric gases. Crucially, weathering is an **in-situ** or **on-site** process, meaning the weathered material is not transported away over significant distances; it breaks down the rock where it is located. Any minor movement sometimes involved is not considered transportation in the sense of erosion.

Weathering is influenced by a complex interplay of geological (rock type and structure), climatic, topographic (slope, elevation), and biological factors. Climate is particularly important, determining not only the dominant weathering processes but also the depth of the weathered layer (the **weathering mantle**).

The depth of weathering varies significantly with climatic zones, as illustrated in the following figure. (This refers to Figure 5.2).

There are three main categories of weathering processes, although they often occur simultaneously and interact with each other:

1. **Chemical Weathering**
2. **Physical (or Mechanical) Weathering**
3. **Biological Weathering**

Chemical Weathering Processes

Chemical weathering involves the decomposition of rocks and minerals through chemical reactions. Key processes include:

• **Solution:** Minerals dissolve directly in water. Water is a universal solvent, and its ability to dissolve minerals is enhanced by dissolved gases or acids.
• **Carbonation:** Carbon dioxide from the atmosphere or soil combines with water to form carbonic acid ($H_2CO_3$), which can dissolve minerals, particularly carbonates like limestone. For example, the reaction with calcium carbonate is $CaCO_3 + H_2O + CO_2 \rightleftharpoons Ca(HCO_3)_2$.
• **Hydration:** Minerals absorb water molecules into their crystal structure, causing them to expand and weaken the rock (e.g., anhydrite ($CaSO_4$) hydrating to gypsum ($CaSO_4 \cdot 2H_2O$)).
• **Oxidation:** Minerals react with oxygen, typically from the air or water. This is common with iron-bearing minerals, leading to the formation of iron oxides (rust), which weaken the rock (e.g., $4Fe^{2+} + O_2 + 4H^+ \rightarrow 4Fe^{3+} + 2H_2O$).
• **Reduction:** The opposite of oxidation, occurring in oxygen-poor environments (like saturated soils), where oxygen is removed from minerals.

Water, oxygen, and carbon dioxide are essential for most chemical reactions to occur, and heat generally accelerates these reactions. Organic decomposition in the soil increases the concentration of carbon dioxide, enhancing carbonation underground.

Physical Weathering Processes

Physical weathering involves the mechanical breakdown or disintegration of rocks into smaller fragments without significant chemical change. This occurs due to applied forces, which can be:

• **Gravitational forces:** Such as the weight of overlying rock (overburden pressure) or shearing stress along fractures.
• **Expansion forces:** Caused by changes in temperature, growth of crystals (e.g., ice, salt), or biological activity.
• **Water pressure:** Related to cycles of wetting and drying, causing swelling and shrinking of certain materials (like clay).

Common physical weathering processes include:

• **Unloading and Expansion:** As overlying rocks are removed by erosion, the underlying rock experiences a release of pressure, causing it to expand and fracture parallel to the surface, leading to exfoliation sheets.
• **Thermal Expansion and Contraction:** Repeated daily or seasonal heating and cooling causes minerals within rocks to expand and contract at different rates, creating stress that eventually leads to fracturing, particularly in arid and semi-arid regions.
• **Freeze-Thaw Weathering (Frost Wedging):** Water seeps into cracks and joints in rocks, freezes (expands by about 9%), exerting pressure that widens the cracks. Repeated freezing and thawing cycles can break rocks apart, especially in areas with frequent temperature fluctuations around freezing point.
• **Salt Weathering (Salt Crystallization):** Dissolved salts in water penetrate rock pores or cracks. As the water evaporates, the salts crystallize and grow, exerting pressure that pries the rock apart. This is common in arid and coastal environments.
• **Crystal Growth (other than ice and salt):** The growth of other mineral crystals from solution within rock pores can also exert pressure and cause disintegration.

These physical processes are often slow but can cause significant damage through the cumulative effect of repeated stress, leading to rock fatigue and eventual breakdown.

Biological Activity And Weathering

Biological activity contributes to weathering in both mechanical and chemical ways. Organisms can either remove minerals or ions from the weathering environment or cause physical changes to the rock materials.

Examples of biological weathering include:

• **Mechanical:** Organisms like earthworms, termites, ants, and rodents **burrow** through soil and weak rock, breaking up material and bringing it to the surface. **Plant roots** growing in cracks can exert tremendous pressure as they expand, physically wedging rocks apart. Larger animals walking or digging can also mechanically loosen material.
• **Chemical:** Decaying organic matter from dead plants and animals produces various organic acids (like humic and carbonic acids). These acids increase the solubility of minerals and enhance chemical decomposition. Lichens and mosses growing on rock surfaces can secrete chemicals that break down minerals.

Human activities, such as deforestation, farming (ploughing, cultivating), and construction, also contribute to weathering by disturbing the ground, removing protective vegetation, and exposing fresh rock surfaces to atmospheric and chemical agents, as well as aiding the mixing of air, water, and minerals.

Special Effects Of Weathering

Exfoliation

**Exfoliation** is not a specific weathering process itself, but rather a resulting form of rock weathering, often caused by a combination of physical weathering processes like pressure release (unloading) and thermal expansion/contraction, and sometimes aided by chemical weathering or salt crystallization.

It involves the peeling off of curved layers or sheets of rock from the outer surface of a rock mass or bedrock. This process results in the formation of smooth, rounded rock surfaces or landforms called exfoliation domes or tors. (This refers to Figure 5.3, illustrating exfoliation and granular disintegration).

Significance Of Weathering

Weathering is a fundamental process with far-reaching significance for the Earth's surface and life:

• It breaks down large rocks into smaller fragments, creating the raw material for **regolith** (the layer of loose, fragmented rock and soil covering the bedrock) and, subsequently, **soil formation**.
• Weathering is the initial step in the process of **erosion** and **mass movements**. Without weathering to loosen and fragment rocks, erosional agents would be far less effective at acquiring and transporting material.
• Weathering contributes significantly to the reduction of surface relief and the evolution of landforms over geological time.
• It plays a vital role in the formation of **soil**, which is essential for plant growth and thus supports all terrestrial **biomes and biodiversity**. The depth and characteristics of soil depend heavily on the extent of weathering.
• Weathering processes can lead to the **enrichment** and concentration of valuable mineral ores. As rocks containing disseminated minerals undergo weathering, less desirable elements may be leached away by chemical dissolution, leaving behind a higher concentration of valuable minerals (like iron, manganese, aluminium, copper) in the residual material. This process can make the extraction of these ores economically viable.

Mass Movements

**Mass movements**, also known as mass wasting, involve the downslope transfer of rock, soil, and debris primarily under the **direct influence of gravity**. Unlike erosion by agents like water or wind, the material moves *en masse* or as a large unit; air, water, or ice do not carry the debris away but may be present within the moving mass, lubricating or adding weight.

Mass movements can occur at various speeds, from very slow, almost imperceptible creep, to rapid and catastrophic falls or slides. They can involve shallow layers of surface material or deep columns of rock.

While weathering loosens material and makes it more susceptible, it is **not always a strict prerequisite** for mass movement. Unweathered rock can also move if gravitational force exceeds the internal strength or resistance of the material (shearing resistance), for example, along faults or steep joint planes. However, mass movements are significantly more common and active on weathered slopes because the material is already fragmented and weaker.

Mass movements are driven by gravity and **do not involve the transportational work of geomorphic agents** like running water, glaciers, wind, waves, or currents in the same way as erosion. Materials on a slope have resistance to movement, but when the downslope gravitational force becomes greater than this resistance, movement occurs.

Several factors can trigger or accelerate mass movements. These **activating causes** include:

• Removal of support from below (natural undercutting by rivers or waves, or artificial excavation).
• Increasing the slope gradient or height.
• Adding extra weight to the slope (natural accumulation or artificial filling).
• Saturation of slope materials by heavy rainfall, adding weight and lubricating the material.
• Removing load from the upper part of the slope.
• Ground vibrations from earthquakes, explosions, or heavy machinery.
• Excessive natural seepage of water into the slope.
• Rapid lowering of water levels in lakes or rivers, leading to instability of banks.
• Indiscriminate removal of natural vegetation, which binds soil and stabilizes slopes.

Forms of mass movement include **heave** (slow, upward swelling and downslope movement, often due to frost or wetting-drying cycles), **flow** (movement like a viscous fluid), and **slide** (movement along a distinct failure surface).

Landslides

Landslides are a category of relatively **rapid and perceptible mass movements**. They involve the sliding or falling of a mass of rock or debris. The material involved is typically relatively dry, though water content can influence the speed and type of slide. The size and shape of the moving mass depend on features within the rock like joints and bedding planes, the degree of weathering, and the steepness of the slope. Several types of landslides are identified based on the movement characteristics:

• **Slump:** A type of slide where a mass of rock or debris moves downslope along a curved (rotational) failure surface. The upper part of the slumped mass often rotates backward relative to the slope. (This refers to Figure 5.4).
• **Debris Slide:** A rapid sliding movement of unconsolidated or semi-consolidated material (debris) down a slope, typically along a relatively planar (flat) failure surface, without significant backward rotation.
• **Debris Fall:** The free falling of unconsolidated earth debris from a steep vertical or overhanging face.
• **Rockslide:** The rapid sliding of individual rock blocks or masses down a slope along existing planes of weakness such as bedding planes, joints, or faults. Over steep slopes, rockslides can be very fast and destructive. (This refers to Figure 5.5 showing landslide scars).
• **Rock Fall:** The free falling of detached rock blocks from a steep cliff face. Unlike rockslides, which can involve deeper material, rock falls usually involve surface layers.

In regions like the Himalayas, debris avalanches and landslides are frequent due to the region's tectonic activity, steep slopes, composition of sedimentary rocks and unconsolidated deposits. Even in tectonically stable areas like the Western Ghats and Nilgiris, landslides occur, though less frequently, driven by steep slopes, intense mechanical weathering from temperature changes, and heavy, concentrated rainfall.

Erosion And Deposition

Erosion is the process by which natural agents **acquire** (pick up) and **transport** rock and soil debris. Once rocks are broken down by weathering or other processes, mobile geomorphic agents such as running water, groundwater, glaciers, wind, and waves remove these fragments and carry them to different locations. Abrasion, the grinding and wearing away of rock by the debris carried by these agents, also contributes significantly to erosion.

Erosion leads to the degradation (wearing down) of the land surface and reduction of relief. While weathering prepares material, **it is not a necessary precondition for erosion**; agents like glaciers or powerful waves can erode fresh bedrock. Weathering, mass-wasting, and erosion are all processes that contribute to denudation (wearing away the land).

The energy for erosion and transportation comes from the kinetic energy of the geomorphic agents, derived ultimately from gravity (for water, ice) and solar energy (for wind, waves). The main erosional agents are:

• **Running Water:** Rivers and streams. (Liquid state, climatically controlled).
• **Glaciers:** Moving masses of ice. (Solid state, climatically controlled).
• **Wind:** Moving air. (Gaseous state, climatically controlled).
• **Waves and Currents:** Water movement in oceans and lakes. (Primarily influenced by location along coasts and lithology, less directly by climate).
• **Groundwater:** Water within the Earth's subsurface. (Primarily influenced by rock permeability and solubility).

Comparing the climatically controlled agents (water, ice, wind): Running water is powerful in humid regions; glaciers are dominant in cold, high-latitude or high-altitude regions; and wind is most effective in arid and semi-arid environments where vegetation is sparse. Waves are primarily active along coastlines, and groundwater is significant in areas with soluble rocks like limestone.

**Deposition** is the process by which geomorphic agents **lose energy** and the transported material settles out. It is a consequence of erosion and transportation. As the velocity of an erosional agent decreases (e.g., a river reaching a flatter slope or entering a lake), its capacity to carry sediment diminishes, and it drops its load. Generally, coarser and heavier particles are deposited first, while finer and lighter particles are carried further before settling.

Deposition leads to the aggradation (building up) of the land surface, filling depressions and creating new landforms. The same agents responsible for erosion (running water, glaciers, wind, waves, groundwater) also act as agents of deposition.

While both mass movements and erosion involve the transfer of material downslope or laterally, they are distinct processes. Mass movements are driven directly by gravity acting on a mass of material, whereas erosion involves the acquisition and transport of individual particles or fragments by a mobile fluid or ice agent. Significant erosion would be difficult or impossible without the prior fragmentation of rocks, largely accomplished by weathering, although agents like glaciers can erode solid rock directly.

Soil Formation

Soil is the uppermost layer of the Earth's crust, a dynamic and complex medium that supports plant life. It is a product of both the breakdown of rocks and the accumulation of organic matter. It constantly undergoes chemical, physical, and biological changes, varying in characteristics with the seasons.

Process Of Soil Formation

The process of soil formation, known as **pedogenesis**, begins with **weathering**. The layer of weathered rock material and accumulated deposits (regolith) provides the initial raw material for soil development.

Microscopic organisms like bacteria, as well as simpler plants like mosses and lichens, are typically the first life forms to colonize the weathered material. These pioneers are followed by other small organisms. Their dead remains contribute to the accumulation of **humus**, a stable form of decomposed organic matter that is crucial for soil fertility and structure.

Grasses, ferns, and eventually larger plants like bushes and trees take root, with seeds often dispersed by wind or animals. Plant roots penetrate and break up the material. Burrowing animals mix the soil. This biological activity makes the material more porous, improves its ability to retain water, and facilitates the circulation of air.

Over long periods, a complex mixture of mineral particles (from weathered rock) and organic matter develops, resulting in a mature soil profile with distinct layers or horizons.

Soil-Forming Factors

Soil formation is influenced by five primary factors working together:

1. **Parent Material:** The original rock or sediment from which the soil develops.
2. **Topography:** The shape and slope of the land.
3. **Climate:** Temperature and precipitation conditions.
4. **Biological Activity:** The influence of plants, animals, and microorganisms.
5. **Time:** The duration over which soil formation processes operate.

These factors interact and influence each other. While some factors like climate and biological activity are considered **active** because they directly drive chemical and biological reactions, others like parent material and topography are considered **passive** because they provide the setting or raw material but do not initiate the processes themselves.

Parent Material: This is a passive factor. It can be weathered bedrock in place (forming **residual soils**) or unconsolidated sediments transported and deposited by agents like water, wind, or glaciers (forming **transported soils**). The parent material's composition (minerals), texture (particle size), and structure influence the initial soil characteristics and the rate of weathering. While different parent rocks can sometimes produce similar soils over long periods, young soils or those in specific environments (like limestone areas) often show strong links to their parent material.

Topography: Another passive factor. Slope affects soil formation by influencing drainage and exposure. Steep slopes tend to have thin soils due to faster erosion and less water infiltration. Gentle slopes or flat areas allow for slower erosion, better water percolation, and thicker soil development. Flat areas may accumulate more organic matter and develop a clay-rich layer.

Climate: This is a major active factor. Key climatic elements are moisture (precipitation, evaporation, humidity) and temperature. Precipitation provides moisture needed for chemical and biological activity. Excess water can leach soluble components downwards through the soil profile (**eluviation**) and deposit them in lower layers (**illuviation**), creating distinct soil horizons. In high rainfall areas, even silica can be removed (**desilication**). In dry climates with high evaporation, water is drawn upwards by capillary action, leaving salts behind at the surface, which can form hardpans. In moderate rainfall areas, calcium carbonate nodules (kanker) can form.

Temperature influences the rate of chemical and biological processes. Higher temperatures increase chemical reaction rates and biological activity (like bacterial growth), leading to faster soil development and deeper profiles in tropical regions. Conversely, cold temperatures slow or stop biological and chemical activity (except carbonation), resulting in shallow, mechanically weathered soils in polar and tundra regions. Freezing and thawing cycles also contribute to physical breakdown.

Biological Activity: This is another crucial active factor. Plants, animals, and microorganisms are essential. Plants contribute organic matter (humus) and aid moisture retention. Organic acids from decomposition enhance weathering. Bacterial activity varies with climate; slow bacterial growth in cold climates leads to humus accumulation and peat layers, while rapid decomposition in humid tropics results in low humus content. Some bacteria perform **nitrogen fixation**, converting atmospheric nitrogen into a form plants can use, enhancing soil fertility. Larger organisms like earthworms rework the soil, mixing layers and altering texture and chemistry through their digestive processes.

Time: This passive factor determines the extent of soil development and the maturity of the soil profile. Soil-forming processes take time to create distinct horizons. Young soils on recent deposits (like river alluvium or glacial till) may show little or no profile development. Mature soils, where all factors have acted for a sufficient duration, exhibit well-defined horizons. There is no fixed period for soil maturity; it varies greatly depending on the other factors.

Exercises

Multiple Choice Questions

(Exercise questions are not included as per instructions.)

Answer The Following Questions In About 30 Words

(Exercise questions are not included as per instructions.)

Answer The Following Questions In About 150 Words

(Exercise questions are not included as per instructions.)

Project Work

(Project work details are not included as per instructions, though the heading is retained.)